1. Balguy-Gallois, A. and Mortier, R. (Medecins du Monde). Trintignac, Florence ed. A case by case analysis of recent crises assessing 20 years of humanitarian action: Iraq, Somalia, the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Burundi, the former Zaire, Chechnya, and Kosovo. Working paper. 1999 Apr.

2. Bariagaber, A. Linking political violence and refugee situations in the horn of Africa: an empirical approach. International Migration Quarterly Review. 1995; 33(2): 209-234.
Notes: Abstract quoted from excerpt of background to article. Abstract: "This article attempts to quantitatively investigate and explain possible relationships between patterns of political violence and refugee formations. Political violence variables which contribute most to refugee movements in the Horn of Africa will be identified. Particular attention will be given to the extent to which refugee movements (the dependent variable) were influenced by domestic and international political violence patterns (the independent variables); which of these violence variables was more important in explaining refugee movements; and whether there were common patterns in Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan with respect to movements of refugees. Although conflict situations in the region have also created millions of internally displaced persons, the scope of this paper is on refugees as defined by the Organization of African Unity in 1969."

3. Berren, M. R.; Beigel, A., and Ghertner, S. A typology for the classification of disasters. Community Ment Health J. 1980 Summer; 16(2): 103-11.
Keywords: Adolescence/ Adult/ Child/ Disaster Planning: *methods/ Disasters: prevention & control/ Human/ Natural Disasters/ Relief Work
Abstract: A model that can be used to classify various types of disasters is presented. The model allows for disasters to be classified along five criteria: (1) type of disaster (acts of God as opposed to man made), (2) duration of disaster, (3) degree of personal impact, (4) potential for occurrence, and (5) control over future impact. The point is made that the model can be utilized in identification of crucial elements of a disaster. The identification of such elements will, in turn, assist the human service provider in planning intervention activities that make sense in light of consequences (and potential future consequences) suffered by victims.

4. Buchanan-Smith, M. and Maxwell, S. Linking relief and development: an introduction and overview. IDS Bull. 1994; 25(4): 2-16.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: There is a theoretical need to link relief and development, but there are several challenges that hinder the formation of this link. Also, there are situations in which it may not be appropriate to link relief and development due to issues of cost effectiveness and certain war-related circumstances. This paper addresses these problems and how they occur in four different types of emergency settings: (1) rapid onset emergencies, (2) slow onset emergencies, (3) permanent emergencies, and (4) complex political emergencies. It also advocates the fact that more research is needed to know when it is most beneficial to link relief and development.

5. Burkle, F. M. Lessons learnt and future expectations of complex emergencies. BMJ. 1999 Aug 14; 319(7207):422-6.
Keywords: *Disasters/ *Emergencies/ *Health Resources/ Human/ Iraq/ Legislation, Medical/ Politics/ Public Health/ Research/ Security Measures/ Socioeconomic Factors/ *War
Notes: Abstract quoted from conclusions to article.
Abstract: "The 1990s will be viewed as the decade of the emergence of the complex political disaster, but it is unlikely to see the end of them. Many people argue that the role of the international community and the effectiveness of humanitarian assistance have been seriously flawed. Even though health programmes have matured greatly, with professionalisation of providers, codes of conduct, and research and field based education programmes, health providers have been frustrated by meeting the challenge to save lives, only to find themselves sliding back again into crisis. Lessons gained through experience in recent complex emergencies will have ready application for future political trials and conflicts."

6. Burkle, F. M. Jr; McGrady, K. A.; Newett, S. L.; Nelson, J. J.; Dworken, J. T.; Lyerly, W. H. Jr; Natsios, A. S., and Lillibridge, S. R. Complex, humanitarian emergencies: III. Measures of effectiveness. Prehospital Disaster Med. 1995 Jan-1995 Mar 31; 10(1): 48-56.
Keywords: Disaster Planning: *standards/ Emergencies/ Health Services Research/ Human/ *International Cooperation/ Outcome Assessment (Health Care): *organization & administration/ Program Evaluation/ Relief Work: *standards
Abstract: Complex humanitarian emergencies lack a mechanism to coordinate, communicate, assess, and evaluate response and outcome for the major participants (United Nations, International Committee of the Red Cross, non-governmental organizations and military forces). Success in these emergencies will depend on the ability to accomplish agreed upon measures of effectiveness (MOEs). A recent civil-military humanitarian exercise demonstrated the ability of participants to develop consensus- driven MOEs. These MOEs combined security measures utilized by the military with humanitarian indicators recognized by relief organizations. Measures of effectiveness have the potential to be a unifying disaster management tool and a partial solution to the communication and coordination problems inherent in these complex emergencies.

7. Cernea, M. The risks and reconstruction model for resettling displaced populations. World Development. 1997; 25(10): 1569-1587.
Abstract: Involuntary population displacements and resettlement entailed by development programs have reached a magnitude and frequency that give these phenomena worldwide relevance and require policy-guided solutions. The author extracts the general trends and common characteristics revealed by a vast body of empirical data, to construct a theoretical model of displacement and reconstruction. The model captures the socioeconomic content of both segments of the process: forced displacement and reestablishment. It identifies the key risks and impoverishment processes in displacement as: (a) landlessness; (b) joblessness; (c) homelessness; (d) marginalization; (e) food insecurity; (f) loss of access to common property resources; (g) increased morbidity; and (h) community disarticulation. Conversely, the model suggests that reconstructing and improving the livelihood of those displaced require risk-reversals through explicit strategies backed up by adequate financing. Flawed approaches to reconstruction and the intrinsic limitations of cost-benefit analysis are discussed. The paper shows how the proposed model can be used by practitioners and researchers as a diagnostic tool, a predictive tool, a problem-resolution tool and a research-guidance tool.

8. Chen, L. C. and Rietveld, A. Human security during complex humanitarian emergencies: rapid assessment and institutional capabilities. Medicine and Global Survival. 1994; 1(3): 156-163. Note: Abstract written by Tulane University. Abstract: Various kinds of crises are reported everyday from around the world and they usually share a few common features: They are intranational, most of the suffering is inflicted upon civilians, and they usually result in displaced populations. Especially destructive is the migration of international refugees or persons within national boundaries because displacement can powerfully worsen survival risk when hazardous physical circumstances combine with catastrophic disruption of traditional social support systems. Effective access to affected population of governmental and intergovernmental organizations and NGOs is important, but they are gaps that hinder this access. Consideration of two issues would be helpful when developing policies intended to overcome these gaps. The first is Rapid Humanitarian Assessment. Three types of assessment are useful depending on the temporal relationship between the assessment and the crisis. The first is post-hoc, another assessment is during rapid transitions, and finally, there are rapid assessments during acute crises. The second issue to be considered is the strengthening of the response capabilities of humanitarian organizations, especially in the arenas of institutional goals, field operations, and financing. Finally the world should agree upon what constitutes human rights and on a universal definition of humanitarianism. We must also remember the concept of human security- this term taken the same way everywhere has the potential for unifying diverse actors and interests in international and civil society.

9. De Marchi, B. and Ungaro, D. A sociosystemic model of information management in mass emergencies. In Dynes, R. R. De Marchi F. and Pelanda C. Sociology of disasters. Milano: Franco Angeli Libri; 1987; pp. 119-133.
Notes: Abstract quoted from introduction to book chapter.
Abstract: "In this paper we intend to approach the topic of information management in mass emergencies and disasters, mainly for civil protection purposes.
There exists a long tradition of studies and empirical research on this topic, but most of them seem to belong to a "technological" vein. This means that they take into account only or mainly that aspect of communication which refers to the content of the message transmitted. Consequently they linger over the ways and means (mainly technical) by which a certain ready-made message can be conveyed to a certain destination. We believe sociology can offer a much more original contribution to the topic at issue by taking into account the social and pragmatic aspects of communication as well.
From our perspective, we certainly do not see a disaster as a physical event, but we are not satisfied with the too generic alternative of "disaster as a social event". As we will clarify below in this paper, in our opinion a disaster is essentially a reality created in the process of communication. Consequently strategic management of information cannot be conceived of just as descriptive analysis of the present. It must provide a contribution to the arousal and the ongoing of communication processes."

10. Drabek, T. Conference report: Research Committee on Disasters, XIII World Congress of Sociology, Bielefeld, Germany, 18-22 July 1994. Disasters. 1995; 19(1): 74-77.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This paper provides a listing of all session titles held at a weeklong Congress entitled 'Sociology of Disasters'. The International Sociological Association (ISA) convened the Congress. Forty-nine papers were included in the meeting and some notes from the conference papers are highlighted in this brief report. Of special focus are issues relating to theory, mitigation, response and recovery in the context of the sociology of disasters.

11. Fagen, P. W. and Uimonen, P. After the conflict: a review of selected sources on rebuilding war-torn societies. UNRISD/PSIS, War Torn Societies Project, Occasional paper 1. 1994 Nov. (On-line). Available: http://www.unrisd.org/wsp/txt/wsp-op1.txt
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: There are several major issues faced by societies trying to recover from conflict, and the aid agencies involved with them. In this bibliographic essay, the various intellectual and professional perspectives from which the included literature originates are listed and defined. In the bibliography itself, there is an overview of comprehensive projects, studies, and books that analyze the aftermath of conflict. The remaining portion of the bibliography is divided into five categories: 1) international organizational capacities; 2) reforming security structures; 3) political rebuilding; 4) economic rebuilding; and 5) social rebuilding, local empowerment, and capacity building. Most bibliographic entries include a brief, annotated summary.

12. Hendrickson, D. Humanitarian action in protracted crises: the new relief ‘agenda’ and its limits. Relief and rehabilitation network paper 25. London: Overseas Development Institute; 1998.
Abstract: This paper offers a synthesis of ideas debated at a one-day seminar examining international responses to humanitarian tragedies. With many regions of the world caught up in a state of protracted crisis, questions are increasingly being asked about the international community’s commitment to respond to acute human suffering where it occurs and to address its underlying causes.
This assault on humanitarian values can be understood in terms of a growing disengagement by rich countries from crisis regions and the belief that saving lives can no longer be the sole justification for international interventions. On the ground, this has manifested itself in declining levels of relief assistance and the manipulation of aid by donor governments in support of strategic and geo-political objectives.
The new relief ‘agenda’ identified in various countries today has emerged on the back of a claim that at best relief aid does not contribute to solutions and at worst may fuel conflict. In response to such assertions, new ‘developmentalist’ models of relief are being implemented today which posit a quick return to ‘peaceful’ development. In some cases, it is argued, these are simply a cover for reductions in relief assistance. In a context of continuing violence, and with the additional resources needed to bring about genuine ‘development’ not forthcoming, populations are often left in a situation of extremely vulnerability.
This paper suggests that the shortcomings of current responses to crisis by the international community stem from a failure to recognize key features of the new environment in which aid is being delivered today. The ‘internal’ analysis of conflicts and the search for ‘local’ solutions tend to disregard the systemic and protracted nature of current armed conflicts. The gravity of the protracted crises in many countries today suggests that governments need to engage more actively and genuinely with the underlying causes. The humanitarian community itself has a key role to play in bringing about this political response.

13. Hendrickson, D. Humanitarian action in protracted crisis: an overview of the debates and dilemmas. Disasters. 1998 Dec; 22(4): 283-7.
Keywords: *Altruism/ Disaster Planning: *organization & administration/ Ethics/ Food Supply/ Human/ Relief Work: *organization & administration
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: There has been a growing cynicism in respect to humanitarian relief aid recently and many critics of relief aid hold the view that it may actually prolong or exacerbate the crisis at hand. This mindset has led to increasingly inadequate levels of humanitarian assistance or to the international community turning its back on human suffering altogether. This paper is an overview of papers presented at a one day seminal entitled, "The Emperor’s New Clothes: The Collapse of Humanitarian Principles." The papers address principle issues surrounding the role, ability, and effectiveness of humanitarian aid. Critiques of recent policy and relief work are presented, and a need to focus on why relief aid does not always succeed is argued.

14. Hoddinott, J. (International Food Policy Research Institute). The shift from development to emergency assistance and its impact on poverty and nutrition: a conceptual framework. Paper presented at the Inter-American Development Bank Conference on Social Protection and Poverty; Washington D.C., 4 February 1999, Poverty and Inequality Advisory Unit of the Sustainable Development Department.
Abstract: Increasing amounts of bilateral and multilateral aid are being used to respond to macroeconomic shocks, political instability and natural disasters. This paper sets out a conceptual framework for considering the consequences of this trend. There are three levels of analysis: provision; coverage; and assessment of impact. In developing this framework, the paper argues that differences in their mode of delivery and time scale of their operation point to a prima facie case for believing that this shift is likely to be inimical to long term poverty reduction. Second, response to shocks are not always pro-poor. Third, the assessment of impact is dependent on the specific objectives that have been set and the magnitudes of the linkages between an intervention and outcomes of interest.

15. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. World Disasters Report 1997. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1997; pp. 47-59.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: The IFRC World Disasters Report provides an overview of the issues and challenges faced for those working in disaster and conflict situations. The report is broad-based and provides perspective on five main areas for disaster professionals: (1) key issues, (2) methodologies, (3) The year in disasters, (4) disasters database, (5) Red Cross and Red Crescent. Methodologies for needs assessment and data collection in times of disaster are addressed as well methods of epidemiological data collection. Also, a list of indicators critical to the monitoring and evaluating of disaster and complex emergency programmes is presented.

16. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. World disasters report 1999. Geneva, Switzerland: Continental Printing; 1999. Note: Abstract available on-line: http.www.ifrc.org/publicat/catalog/autogen/4365.asp. Abstract: Published annually since 1993, the World Disasters report provides a comprehensive analysis of the world’s humanitarian crises. It is a useful information source and training tool for disaster professionals and donors, politicians and planners, scientists and academics, journalists and community aid workers.

17. Khasiani, S. A. Refugee research in Africa: problems and possibilities. Int Migr. 1990; 28:369-376.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: In spite of the large number of displaced persons in Africa, relatively little research has been done on refugee populations due to a number of obstacles. Research on refugee populations is needed to help host countries, themselves poor, to cope with displaced populations and to help reduce marginalization of subgroups within refugee populations through better planning. This article discusses conceptual, methodological, and practical problems encountered by refugee researchers in Africa. Many Africans who live as refugees, especially economic migrants, do not fit the official UN definition of a refugee. African refugee data is plagued by issues such as the inability to reach many refugees because of their remote locations and poor transportation, misreporting due to fear and illiteracy, and uncontrolled emigration and immigration at border crossings. The broad diversity of languages presents an enormous barrier to communication between scholars, research field workers, and refugees. Researchers and program planners in Africa often have difficulty accessing relevant information that has already been collected because it tends to be housed in the West. This article notes that the link between research and application has thus far been very weak in Africa and must be improved. Increased funding for, interest in, and application of African refugee research is much needed.

18. Longhurst, R. Conceptual frameworks for linking relief and development. IDS Bull. 1994; 25(4): 17-23.
Notes: Abstract is quoted from first paragraph to introduction of article.
Abstract: "This article attempts to clarify the conceptual confusion underlying current discussions of linking relief and development. The confusion takes the form of competing intellectual frameworks, often using similar words in different ways. It arises partly because the subject is developing rapidly; but also because different analysts are concerned with different kinds of shock in different kinds of situations. The article builds on earlier attempts to classify sources of risk and disaster-types. However, it concentrates on trying to sort and order the many different ideas in circulation about the cause and impact of livelihood shocks."

19. Loretti, A. Armed conflicts, health and health services in Africa. An epidemiological framework of reference. Med Confl Surviv. 1997 Jul-1997 Sep 30; 13(3): 219-28.
Keywords: Africa: epidemiology/ *Cost of Illness/ Disabled Persons/ Health Services: *organization & administration/ *Health Status/ Human/ Poverty/ Refugees/ *War/ Wounds and Injuries: epidemiology: mortality
Abstract: Because of war between the 1980s and early '90s, Africa suffered about 5 million excess deaths and economic losses estimated at US $13 billion per year. In 1995, war was directly or indirectly affecting 550 million people in 35 countries. Besides violent deaths, injuries and disabilities, displacement of populations increases the risk for acute respiratory infections, diarrheas, epidemics and parasitic disease. The risk for malnutrition and deficiencies is made worse by the loss of means of production, of food stocks, of commerce and by banditism. Military operations target water plants and health facilities as means of deliberately hurting civilians. Economic crisis curtails the budgets of the social sectors and, together with social distress, undermines national capacities. The delivery of health care is hampered right when hazards and vulnerabilities increase, with general greater risk of illness and death. With the cessation of hostilities, the need for curative and preventative health activities increases and is a matter of emergency, as equitable access to services is important for peace. Repatriation of refugees, demobilization of soldiers and demining require special health activities. War leaves behind new hazards and vulnerabilities such as landmines, wide availability of weapons, artificial concentrations of population, loss of national capacities and psychological disorders. All this interacts tragically with Africa's wider epidemiological realities of poverty, food insecurity, proneness to natural disasters and endemic diseases.

20. Macrae, J. Purity or political engagement?: Issues in food and health security interventions in complex political emergencies. Journal of Humanitarian Assistance. 1998 Mar 7. (On-line). Available: http://www.jha.sps.cam.ac.uk/a/a574.htm
Abstract: This paper is concerned with the tension between what it describes as "pure" humanitarianism and the increasing pressures on relief workers to become politically engaged by adopting developmental approaches and by seeking to actively resolve disaster-producing conflicts. Combining theory with case studies concerning the delivery of health and food aid in war zones, it argues that while seductive, attempts to use relief aid as a tool for political engagement are fraught with practical and ethical difficulties. Not only are developmental goals elusive in conflict environments, but also, abandoning principles of neutrality and impartiality to determine the allocation of scarce resources increases the risk of aid being manipulated by warring parties and by donor governments. While not unproblematic, the paper concludes that neutrality and impartiality remain the best principles currently available to organize humanitarian action.

21. Meyers, B. Disaster study of war. Disasters. 1991; 15(4): 318-330.
Abstract: In the first part of this article I argue that war should be considered as a disaster. A brief historical review of the relationship of the field of disaster studies to military concerns is presented in an effort to demonstrate that, in fact, war has been a familiar subject in the field. I then consider definitions of disaster and conclude that war is easily accommodated by them. In the main section of the article I attempt to uncover distinctive characteristics of war by submitting war to analysis within well known sociological frameworks for disasters. Finally, some methodological considerations for the study of war disasters are presented.

22. Mock, Nancy et al. Tulane University in collaboration with William Lyerly Emerging Threats and Crisis Response Group leader USAID AFR SD. Public health crisis prevention, mitigation, and recovery: linking relief and development. Paper presented at the conference for Crisis prevention, mitigation, and recovery in Sub-Saharan Africa: linking relief and development through public health; 5-6 June 1996, U.S. Agency for International Development, Bureau for Africa, Health and Human Resource and Analysis for Africa (HHRAA) Project, Tulane University, Center of Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (University of Hawaii, Pacific Regional Medical Command, US Pacific Command), George Washington University, Harvard University, Washington, D.C. (On-line). Available: http://payson.tulane.edu/CERTI

23. Muecke, M. A. New paradigms for refugee health problems. Soc Sci Med. 1992 Aug; 35(4): 515-23.
Keywords: *Acculturation/ *Adaptation, Psychological/ Comparative Study/ *Cross-Cultural Comparison/ Developing Countries/ Female/ Health Services Needs and Demand/ Human/ Male/ Refugees: *psychology/ *Sick Role/ Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic: *psychology
Abstract: Two paradigms that have shaped our understanding of refugee health are identified: the objectification of refugees as a political class of excess people, and the reduction of refugee health to disease or pathology. Alternative paradigms are recommended: one to take the polyvocality of refugees into account, and one to construe refugees as prototypes of resilience despite major losses and stressors. The article is organized into three sections, mirroring the life history of refugees from internal displacement in the country of origin to asylum in a second (usually neighboring) country, and for some, to permanent resettlement in a third country. In each of the three sections, the primary topics that are treated in the literature are identified, and key problems identified for discussion.

24. Neal, D. M. Reconsidering the phases of disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(2): 239-264.
Abstract: The use of disaster phases (e.g., preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation) has assisted both disaster researchers and managers. Disaster researchers have used disaster phases to systematize and codify research results. Disaster managers have drawn upon disaster periods to organize their own activities. Yet, many problems exist with the current use of disaster periods. In summary, I find that the current uses of disaster periods lack conceptual clarity for improving scientific and practical use. As a result, I suggest ways the field can recast the use of disaster phases to improve the theoretical and applied dimensions of the field.

25. Neugebauer, R. Research on violence in developing countries: benefits and perils. Am J Public Health. 1999 Oct; 89(10): 1473-4.
Keywords: *Developing Countries/ Human/ *Human Experimentation/ *Human Rights/ Informed Consent/ Research/ Violence: *prevention & control. Note: Abstract compiled from quotes found within the text of the document. Abstract: "Low intensity warfare involving child soldiers, civilian populations as targets and massive forced migrations are widespread in the developing world. The profound effects of these conflicts and human rights violations on the physical health and well being of the afflicted populations are a recognized concern of the public health and medical communities. The mental health sequelae of wars and violence are devastating and need to be acknowledged and addressed" But do the benefits of studying psychological distress outweigh the dangers? Research does help to advance advocacy for relief organizations, as well as helping to guide allocation of scarce health care resources, but inviting individuals to discuss and recount what they have witnessed and suffered may only further traumatize them. "Free informed consent is difficult to achieve in situations where needs are abundant and trust is in short supply. Reflection and research are needed on how to optimize meaningful free informed consent."

26. Onishi, A. Global early warning system for displaced persons: interlinkages of environment, development, peace and human rights. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 1987; 31:269-299.
Abstract: The work described here is based on the FUGI global modeling concept. Its development is termed the Early Global Warning System for Displaced Persons (GEWS). The paper explains (1) the scope and objectives of the current research; (2) the methodology employed; (3) the main features of the model; and (4) some case studies having to do with the Philippines and Thailand.

27. Pugh, M. Peacebuilding as developmentalism: concepts from disaster research. Contemporary Security Policy. 1995; 16(3): 320-346.
Notes: Quoted portion of abstract is excerpt from article (p. 320), remaining portion written by Tulane University.
Abstract: Violent conflict leads to many of the same social, ecological, and health problems that typically occur as a result of natural disasters. Therefore, many aspects of disaster research are highly applicable to peacebuilding efforts in areas and societies ravaged by war. "This article begins by establishing what is meant by ‘peacebuilding’ and explains how it has evolved as a concept for propelling economic and social development. It then argues that evolutions in disaster research render that field a relevant source of ideas for UN peacebuilding. Allowing for significant distinctions between civil disasters and complex emergencies with violence, the article shows that there are parameters and principles, and indeed predicaments, which can be applied to the concept of peacekeeping as developmentalism."

28. Ressler, E. M., (University of Wisconsin Disaster Management Center). Resettlement of displaced populations. First edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin; 1995.
Notes: Abstract quoted from purpose and scope of introduction to module.
Abstract: "The purpose of this training module is to introduce basic concepts concerning the provision of assistance to enhance the recovery of people forced to leave their homes in emergency situations.
This module is designed to help you: (1) understand the phenomena of displacement, (2) define the concept of resettlement, (3) identify assistance roles of national and international organizations in recovery, (4) review the factors that influence recovery, (5) identify program strategy options for resettlement."

29. Russbach, R. and Fink, D. Humanitarian action in current armed conflicts: opportunities and obstacles. Medicine and Global Survival Journal. 1994; 1(4): 188-199.
Abstract: In its 131 years of existence, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has carried out humanitarian activities in all international armed conflicts and, since 1960, in an increasing number of internal conflicts. In the past 35 years, the ICRC increased its overall permanent staff from 200 to 1500 and its budget has now grown to more than 800 million Swiss Francs in 1993. Following a description of traditional and current conflict patterns and an outline of principles and conditions of humanitarian action, the limits of any humanitarian action are evaluated and analyzed. Attention is thereby focused on fundamental issues of humanitarian actions in current armed conflicts.

30. United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). The state of the world’s refugees: in search of solutions: Oxford University Press; 1995.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This UNHCR document provides a general overview of the global refugee situation and the extent of humanitarian emergencies in various regions of the world. This report is mostly a broad-scoped article, providing some context for country specific humanitarian emergencies while also addressing theories underlying population displacement and the provision of relief aid as an approach to development. In this paper, refugee movement is largely conceptualized in terms of the more permanent social, economic, and ecological conditions characterizing underdeveloped country environments. In assessing the processes driving the development of a complex emergency, forced displacement and mitigation and recovery from situations of country conflict, general environmental and developmental concepts are addressed and explained. The article suggests that not only does a context of underdevelopment prime a country for a situation of vulnerability to conflict, but it also weakens the potential mitigation and recovery process achievable independently by that country.

31. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) / Programme for Strategic and International Security Studies (PSIS). War-torn societies project. Guidelines for research, 16 June 1995. (On-line). Available: http://www.unrisd.org/wsp/txt/wspguide.txt
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: An integrative approach underlies the framework for these guidelines, including recommendations for merging research, policymaking, and operational activity rather than treating the three areas as distinct and separate. The research for the UNRISD/PSIS War-torn Societies Project is in this way expected to be applied as part of the rehabilitation/development process for conflict, and post-conflict regions. Addressed in these War-torn societies guidelines include topics such as: (1) conflict and reconciliation, (2) security situation, (3) emergency and humanitarian actions, (4) political rebuilding, (5) social rehabilitation. Included also is an annex that addresses guidelines for researching local initiatives taken to rebuild the society of interest.

32. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). USAID’s strategies for sustainable development, providing humanitarian assistance & aiding post-crisis transitions. 1999 Jun. (On-line). Available: http://www.info.usaid.gov/hum_response/strategy.htm
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: The end of the Cold War has marked a new era in relief and development needs, primarily due to civil conflict. This document briefly describes the nature of these challenges and elaborates on USAID’s evolving response. Some lessons learned from experience in recent years that will guide future interventions are discussed. The document states organizational goals and areas of concentration, explains the main activities in which USAID engages, and addresses performance assessment.

33. Vis, H. L.; Goyens, P., and Brasseur, D. Rwanda: the case for research in developing countries. Lancet. 1994 Oct 1; 344(8927): 957.
Keywords: *Developing Countries/ *Disasters/ Human/ Nutrition Disorders/ Population Density/ *Population Growth/ Research/ Rwanda
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This letter to the editor expresses concern that relief agency spokespersons working with the Rwandan crisis all seem to view unforeseeable political problems and human rights violations as the root of the crisis. This view completely ignores years of widely published research on the living conditions and health status of Rwandans that was predictive of disaster. The authors issue a strong plea for the use of available information to prevent future crises.

34. Waldman, R. and Martone, G. Public health and complex emergencies: new issues, new conditions. Am J Public Health. 1999 Oct; 89(10): 1483-5.
Keywords: Epidemiologic Methods/ Human/ *Human Rights/ *International Cooperation/ Organizational Objectives/ Relief Work: *organization & administration/ *War/ *World Health
Abstract: Public health practice in complex emergencies has become increasingly sophisticated and well informed over the course of the past quarter century. Humanitarian relief organizations have learned many lessons in the areas of food, water and sanitation, shelter, and primary health. However, closer scrutiny from the media and funding agencies, together with changing conditions and an increasingly insecure environment, will require that changes be made. First and foremost, nongovernmental organizations must recognize that an increasing proportion of morbidity and mortality is the consequence of widespread human rights abuses. These organizations should become more familiar with international human rights and humanitarian law, and their personnel should receive clear guidance as how to recognize and report violations. At the same time, nongovernmental organizations will have to work more closely with military forces that have a very different organizational culture. In addition, as emergencies become more complex, nongovernmental organizations should do more to attract and retain seasoned professionals. Finally, advances in both technical and operational areas will occur only through carefully designed and implemented research.