1. Buchanan-Smith, M. and Tlogelang, G. Linking relief and development: a case study of Botswana. IDS Bull. 1994; 25(4): 55-64.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This paper first outlines Botswana’s achievements in preventing famine during the 1980’s. It then evaluates Botswana’s ability to link relief and development during the same time period by looking at the following: (1) integrating the institutional arrangements for running a large-scale and prolonged relief operation into existing government institutions and structures, (2) implementing a relief program which is compatible with long term development objectives, and (3) implementing development plans and programs which take the likelihood of drought shock into effect and help to ‘drought-proof’ the rural economy. By evaluating the drought and relief recovery programs (DRP) and the National Development Plan (NDP), the authors conclude that Botswana’s success in these areas has been mixed. The country has integrated the administration of drought relief into existing structures. However, many of the long-term development initiatives, such as the livestock feed subsidy and the accelerated rain fed arable production program, were less successful because they were at odds with longer term development interests and were influenced by political lobbying. Botswana has made efforts in ‘drought proofing’ the economy, but much work remains to be done. The authors stressed that Botswana conditions are unique, and they may not be applicable to the experiences of other countries.

2. Colletta, N. J.; Kostner, M., and Wiederhofer, I. (Africa Technical Department Series). Case studies in war-to-peace transition: the demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda. World Bank discussion paper no. 331. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; 1996. Note: Abstract available at World Bank web site: http://www.worldbank.org/html/extpb/abshtml/13674.htm. Abstract: A successful demobilization and reintegration program (DRP) for ex-combatants is the key to an effective transition from war to peace. Undertaken in a peacetime context, a DRP enables a government to restructure its public expenditure in favor of poverty-oriented programs and to consolidate peace efforts. As reinsertion and reintegration proceed, the needs of ex-combatants change and call for different support activities. A successful DPR requires several integrated actions: a) classifying ex-combatants according to need, skill level and their desired mode of subsistence, b) offering a basic transitional assistance package (safety net), c) finding a way to deliver assistance simply, minimizing transition costs while maximizing benefits to ex-combatants, d) sensitizing communities and building on existing social capital, e) coordinating centrally yet decentralizing implementation authority to districts, and f) connecting the DRP to ongoing development efforts by retargeting and restructuring existing portfolios. These case studies provide a detailed analysis of the intricate nature of the political, economic, and socio-cultural issues that arise during the transition from war to peace in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda. These countries offer a unique range of conditions and program models, as well as a variety of successes and failures from which to learn. A recently released overview, The Transition from War to Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa, is based on these country studies and a synthesis of reports of demobilization and reintegration programs in several other countries.

3. Flanagin, A. Somalia's death toll underlines challenges of post-cold war world. JAMA. 1992 Oct 21; 268(15): 1985-7.
Keywords: Adult/ Child/ Human/ International Cooperation/ Male/ Relief Work/ Somalia: epidemiology/ Starvation: *mortality/ United Nations
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This article provides a summary of the situation in Somalia and poses questions directed to the lack of effectiveness of humanitarian aid in mitigating the famine and disease situation in the country. The article begins with a brief contextual description of conditions in Somalia and proceeds to address several factors precipitating failed delivery of effective humanitarian aid to the area. Some recommendations for more effective aid delivery and better identification of aid delivery priorities are included.

4. Garenne, M. L.; Coninx, R., and Dupuy, C. Effects of the civil war in central Mozambique and evaluation of the intervention of the International Committee of the Red Cross. J Trop Pediatr. 1997 Dec; 43(6): 318-23.
Keywords: Adolescence/ Adult/ *Cause of Death/ Child, Preschool/ Developing Countries/ Female/ Fertility/ Health Education: organization & administration/ Health Services Needs and Demand/ Health Surveys/ Human/ Infant/ *Infant Mortality/ Infant, Newborn/ Middle Age/ Mozambique: epidemiology/ Program Evaluation/ Red Cross: *organization & administration/ Retrospective Studies/ *War
Abstract: In October 1994, a retrospective study of mortality of children was conducted in Maringue, a district of central Mozambique. Estimates based on maternity histories of 1503 women aged 15-60 years revealed complex changes in the under-5 death rate. During the colonial period (1955-1974), mortality declined from 373 to 270 per 1000. During the civil war period (1975-1991), mortality increased rapidly to reach a peak of 473 per 1000 in 1986. It declined again thereafter and reached a plateau of 380 in 1991. A health intervention conducted by the International Red Cross Committee since 1992 further reduced mortality to 269 per 1000 in 1994. Most of the 1992-1994 decline was attributable to vaccinations, in particular measles and tetanus immunizations, and to Vitamin A supplementation.

5. Gibb, C. A review of feeding programmes in refugee reception centres in Eastern Sudan, October 1985. Disasters. 1986; 10(1): 17-24.
Notes: Abstract is quoted from introduction to article.
Abstract: "Using questionnaires, data collection and personal interviews, a review was conducted of supplementary feeding programmes in Refugee Reception Centres in Kassala Province Eastern Sudan, between 1 ^st October and 1^st November 1985. In assessing the impact of supplementary feeding programmes, there seems to be no great advantage in "on-the-spot" feeding versus "dry take-home" rations. The main difference is the improved regular attendance in the dry take-home rations and therefore, potentially improved monitoring and follow up. In any feeding programme, good supervision, case finding, follow up, monitoring and evaluation are essential."

6. Hallam, A. Evaluating humanitarian assistance programmes in complex emergencies. Relief and rehabilitation network good practice review 7. London: Overseas Development Institute; 1998. Abstract: Evaluation is a key tool in efforts to improve accountability and performance in the operation of the international humanitarian aid system. However, humanitarian aid has been subjected to less rigorous monitoring and evaluation procedures than those applied to development aid. As the share of oda allocated to humanitarian aid has risen, and awareness of the complexity of humanitarian assistance has increased, so the need to develop appropriate methodologies for the evaluation of relief aid has become more apparent. The study seeks to improve the consistency and quality of evaluation methodologies, and enhance the accountability function on evaluation, contribute to institutionalizing the lessons learned, and identify better methods for monitoring performance of humanitarian aid operations.

8. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Working Group. Mainstreaming gender in the humanitarian response to emergencies. Background document for item 1b. UN Charter. IASC Working Group XXXVI Meeting; Rome. (On-line). Available: http://www.reliefweb.int/ocha_olpub/iasc/IASC%20gender.htm
Notes: Abstract quoted from purpose to paper p. 2 of downloaded document.
Abstract: "The purpose of this paper is to provide a summary overview of the differential impact of emergencies and crisis situations on women and girls, men and boys. It will also discuss the policy issues and implications of a gender perspective. It will present options for the application of humanitarian principles as well as the appropriate responses needed to address the specific needs of women and girls in pre-conflict, emergency, natural disaster, and post-crisis settings.
The principal object is to facilitate discussion within the IASC in order to identify a coordinated programme of action to enhance the qualities of gender-based assessment, planning, program implementation, training, monitoring, evaluation and reporting at headquarters and field levels."

9. Macrae, J. Dilemmas of ‘post’ -conflict transition: lessons from the health sector. Relief and rehabilitation network paper 12. London: Overseas Development Institute; 1995.
Abstract: A significant number of countries worldwide are described as entering a phase of ‘post’ -conflict transition. Drawing on the experience of the health sector, this paper argues that the nature of the rehabilitation task is often misunderstood. In particular, it is often equated with reconstruction of war-damaged infrastructure and assets. Such an approach derives from a misconception of the origins and nature of contemporary warfare. It also serves to reinforce a linear approach to the transition from relief to development.
This paper attempts to redefine the rehabilitation task in situations of ‘post’-conflict transition, drawing on examples from Cambodia, Ethiopia and Uganda. It argues that the direct effects of military action on the social sector are less significant than the indirect effects of political, economic and social changes, which both underlie and are precipitated by conflict. Therefore, rehabilitation needs to go beyond reconstruction and tackle the root causes of instability.
Such a reinterpretation of the rehabilitation task raises a number of dilemmas, particularly for international actors concerned to contribute to a sustainable peace. These dilemmas are rooted in both the uncertainty about the legitimacy of incoming governments in transitional situations, and in the organisations of the aid system itself. The paper concludes that confronting these dilemmas implies a fundamental change in the orientation and delivery of aid in ‘post’-conflict situations.

10. Macrae, J.; Bradbury, M.; Jaspars, S.; Johnson, D., and Duffield, M. Conflict, the continuum and chronic emergencies: a critical analysis of the scope for linking relief, rehabilitation and development planning in Sudan. Disasters. 1997 Sep; 21(3):223-43.
Keywords: Human/ Organizational Policy/ Politics/ Program Development/ Relief Work: *organization & administration/ *Social Planning/ Sudan/ United Nations/ *War
Abstract: The concept of the 'relief-to-development continuum' has been the subject of renewed interest in recent years. Concerned by the rise in relief budgets over the past decade and the absolute fall in development aid resources, support has been growing for the concept of developmental relief. In the context of complex political emergencies, it has been argued further that as effective development aid can reduce vulnerability to the impact of natural hazards, so it might also be used to contribute to a process of conflict prevention. In this way, the concept of the relief-development continuum has become entwined with broader discussions about the contribution of official development assistance management. Drawing on a Review of Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), this paper cautions against uncritical application of the concept of the continuum in complex political emergencies and rehabilitation in particular, in the current Sudanese context. It argues that in order to move legitimately from relief aid programming to development aid programming, three fundamental conditions must be in place: first, a minimum level of security, respect for human rights and humanitarian access. Second, empirical evidence from the field needs to demonstrate that the emergency is over. Finally, moving from relief to development aid programming is contingent on donor governments accepting the legitimacy of national governmental structures and of the rebel movements. In other words, for donor governments, moving along the continuum is in significant part determined by foreign policy considerations, not only technical ones. Consideration needs to be given to the actual and perceived legitimation of the different movements that a move to rehabilitation might be seen to imply. The paper argues that none of these conditions had been satisfied in Sudan by mid-1997. Instead of a process of normalisation paving the way to long-term development, the current situation in Sudan is better described as a chronic political emergency. In such a context, uncritical pursuit of developmental strategies may negatively affect the welfare of conflict-affected populations.

11. Macrae, J.; Zwi, A., and Birungi, H. (Health Policy Unit, Department of Public Health and Policy London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine). A healthy peace? Rehabilitation and development of the health sector in a 'post'-conflict situation: the case of Uganda. 1995.
Notes: Abstract is quoted from introduction to executive summary of this report.
Abstract: Political violence poses a direct and indirect threat to the health of individuals, and populations, and to health systems. In many Third World countries conflict has exacerbated and compounded the structural weaknesses inherent in health systems in the pre-conflict era. Countries recovering from conflict therefore face a dual challenge with regard to health development in the ‘post’-conflict period: to address both the general imbalances in the health system common to many Third World countries, and those particular social, political and health problems engendered and exacerbated by war.
The transition from war to relative peace is typically marked by changes of regime or system of governance. The achievement of peace and the process of recovery, rehabilitation and development therefore present opportunities for reappraisal of public policy in general and of health policy in particular. The rapid inflows of international aid also present an important financial opportunity for health systems development. Realising these opportunities for health development in ‘post’-conflict situations will be contingent upon overcoming major structural obstacles in these unstable and resource poor environments. It will also demand more critical examination of the strengths and weaknesses of alternative approaches to rehabilitation policy design and implementation."

12. Macrae, J.; Zwi, A. B., and Gilson, L. A triple burden for health sector reform: ‘post’-conflict rehabilitation in Uganda. Soc Sci Med. 1996; 42(7): 1095-1108.
Keywords: Uganda, post-conflict, health systems, health policy, policy analysis, international aid, health sector reform, sub-Saharan Africa
Abstract: While conflict continues to threaten health development in many countries, relative peace has been secured in others. The transition from war to peace carries important political and economic opportunities for the reappraisal of social policy in general, and of health policy in particular. The health systems of countries recovering from prolonged periods of conflict often carry a double burden: the inheritance of an inappropriate and unaffordable health system developed in the pre-conflict era, and the particular, long-term effects of conflict on health and health services. This paper reports on the particular polices designed to rehabilitate the Ugandan health system, and argues that they exacerbated, rather than alleviated, the health crisis inherited in 1986. In this way they posed a third burden. By analyzing the context and process of policy formulation in the immediate post-conflict period, it explores the rationale, which lay behind the adoption of these policies and identifies potential strategies for strengthening policy development in these unstable, resource-poor and health-deprived situations.

13. Marshall, K. From war and resettlement to peace development: some lessons from Mozambique and UNHCR and World Bank Collaboration. Development discussion paper no. 633. Harvard Institute for International Development; 1998 Apr.
Abstract: Mozambique’s transition from protracted war to peace and development offers a special, perhaps unique example of international collaboration in supporting the war to peace transition, because of its scale and relatively smooth unfolding. One critical element of this transition was the resettlement of up to six million people, most spontaneously and with remarkably little friction and recrimination. The United Nations high Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) provided intensive support both to Mozambican refugees during the conflict, and to the refugees and others who resettled in Mozambique’s most affected regions after the war. The World Bank, in parallel, came to play a central role in supporting Mozambique’s development strategy and finance. Some special efforts were undertaken to bridge the gulf between humanitarian aid, exemplified in UNHCR’s activities, and development support, with the World Bank taking an expanding and pivotal role as chair of the central aid coordination group for Mozambique, the Consultative Group.
UNHCR’s role in Mozambique has received wide acclaim. As UNHCR wound up its Mozambique operations in 1996, it engaged in an evaluation exercise, termed "Lessons learned". One question that arose was how and how well UNHCR and other institutions, including the World Bank and many nongovernmental organizations, collaborated during this effort. This paper reviews the UNHCR ex-post evaluation exercise, and draws some lessons for broader international collaboration in post-conflict situations. It also reviews some specific institutional lessons, including some missed opportunities for effective, field collaboration between the UNHCR and the World Bank, as Mozambique emerged from conflict and launched itself on the long-term task of economic and social development, weakness in regional dimensions in approaching issues, and the need for early and effective collaboration on establishing an operation strategy to guide external support during the demanding and fast-moving post-war rebuilding period.

14. Maxwell, S. and Lirenso, A. Linking relief and development: an Ethiopian case study. IDS Bull. 1994; 25(4): 65-76.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: The theoretical approach of linking relief to development is here discussed in the context of the situation in Ethiopia. The authors present an argument for Ethiopia as an attractive case study for the application of a relief to development approach in provision of humanitarian aid and intervention programmes. Points of discussion include the context of food insecurity and famine vulnerability that characterize Ethiopia, as well as the relatively high expense required for food aid to Ethiopia. From this point, a cost-benefit analysis and discussion of trade-offs in considering a humanitarian approach linking relief to development are presented. Institutional issues and considerations for the pace and timing of linking relief to development in assistance are also addressed.