1. Barakat, S. and Ellis, S. Researching under fire: issues for consideration when collecting data and information in war circumstances, with specific reference to relief and reconstruction projects. Disasters. 1996 Jun; 20(2): 149-56.
Keywords: Bias (Epidemiology)/ City Planning: statistics & numerical data/ *Data Collection/ Human/ Relief Work: *statistics & numerical data/ Research Design/ *War
Abstract: The post-Cold War era has witnessed an increased number of conflicts and higher levels of international intervention by the humanitarian community and the military. Those who undertake to research the actions of relief and development agencies acting in these wars must act within new parameters that require a flexible, innovative and reflective approach. Not much is known about data collection in war. The most relevant publications come from the field of development studies. This paper is a beginning in a much-needed discourse on researching under fire; it is offered not as a definitive work, but as a starting-point for discussion.

2. Belcher, J. C. A cross-cultural household level-of-living scale. Rural Sociology. 1972; 37(2): 208-220.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to construct a level-of-living scale that is valid cross-culturally. Level-of-living and related socioeconomic indices have been widely used in social science research. All of these scales have been culture-bound and seldom, if ever, even adequate for longitudinal studies. New approaches for measuring such phenomena are needed. Previous level-of-living scales have been based on possession of items rather than on their functional use. For this study a list of functions fulfilled within the household through the utilization of material items was compiled. Gradations in technological efficiency in performing these functions were given weights ranging from one to five. Functional alternatives to the items listed are permitted. The resulting 14-item household level-of-living scale was tested by use of data from rural Georgia, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic. Evidence is presented that the instrument is a valid and reliable measure of level of living.

3. Benini, A. A. Uncertainty and information flows in humanitarian agencies. Disasters. 1997 Dec; 21(4): 335-53.
Keywords: *Data Collection/ *Decision Making, Organizational/ Human/ Relief Work: *organization & administration/ Sudan/ United Nations/ Voluntary Health Agencies: *organization & administration/ War
Abstract: Humanitarian agencies struggle with high uncertainty. The focus here is on uncertainty that grows out of the internal complexity of the agencies themselves, rather than simply emanating from their war-ridden environments. This is illustrated with a study of uncertainty management and information processing in two UN agencies working for the victims of the conflict in southern Sudan. Data from 1995 relief distributions are used to simulate aspects of uncertainty; paradoxically, uncertainty increased with growing success of the relief operation. The findings are in tune with observations from the same region that Jok (1996) reported in this journal. While uncertainty may remain difficult to reduce, co-operation among agencies and public confidence in their work provide functional equivalents for certainty.

4. Borton, J. and York, S. Experiences of the collection and use of micro-level data in disaster preparedness and managing emergency operations. Disasters. 1987; 11(3): 173-181.
Notes: Abstract is compilation of quotations from introduction to article.
Abstract: "A two day workshop was held to bring together groups and individuals from research groups and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) who were working on the topic of micro-level indicators and early warning systems. The objective of the workshop was to provide an overview on the current state of the art in this area of work. The workshop was seen as being part of the overall process of reviewing the use of information in emergencies."
"...Working within the assumption that micro-level indicators have a role to play in early warning and disaster preparedness, the workshop focussed on themes and issues resulting from the experiences of the participants in their work with micro-level indicators. The focus was thus on: (a) Sub-Saharan Africa; (b) drought-prone regions; (c) long-onset disasters as opposed to short-onset disasters; (d) interventions by governments and non-governmental organizations; (e) how to put early warning systems together.
Rather than give a blow by blow account of the proceedings, this report of the workshop synthesizes the points raised during the discussions and orders them under the thematic headings of "models," "indicators" and "systems." The workshop was in fact structured in a conventional way, progressing from the consideration of research issues to reviews of recent experiences."

5. Bourque, L. B.; Shoaf, K. I., and Nguyen, L. H. Survey research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(1): 71-101.
Abstract: We examine the kinds of information that can be obtained from well-designed, standardized, population-based surveys and demonstrate that some things which, in the past, have been considered barriers to the use of surveys following disasters provide insights into post disaster behavior and may be advantageous. In specific, we examine: the use of standardized surveys to compare community behavior across time, events, and locations; the extent to which surveys represent the population of interest in the aftermath of a disaster; the receptivity of respondents to being interviewed after a disaster; the ability to utilize telephones for interviews after a disaster; the extent to which the data collected in a survey are perishable and subject to memory decay; the use of surveys as quasi-experimental designs for obtaining information on "control groups"; the use of surveys as a source of baseline data or denominator data for ascertaining what other, more specialized datasets represent; the maintenance of verbal data collected within the context of a survey for later post-coding and analysis; and the storage of surveys in archives for use in secondary analyses by other researchers. Overall, we conclude that well-designed, standardized, population-based surveys can provide an accurate picture of a community's behaviors and attitudes with regard to disasters as well as describe the impact of a disaster on a population.

6. Cuny, F. C. and Hill, R. B. Famine, conflict and response: a basic guide. West Hartford: Kumarian Press; 1999; pp. 33-42, 117-126.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: Famine, Conflict, and Response provides a general framework for understanding the political, social, and economic dynamics influencing situations of famine. In this book, Cuny explores the underlying causes of famine and uses an economic approach to understanding famine in order to identify appropriate measures for humanitarian intervention. Famine caused by natural disaster as well as that caused by armed conflict is addressed. The recommended principles for humanitarian response are innovative, steering away from a framework of survival orientation and directed more towards the improvement and establishment of livelihood security.
The noted pages address early warning and monitoring systems for famine prediction as well as provide guidelines for situation assessment and monitoring for evaluation purposes. Recommended indicators of vulnerability, imminent crisis, and those of famine are listed, types of warning and response systems are outlined, the elements and activities of assessments are described and methods of and priorities for assessments are also addressed. Together these pages provide insight into an economic approach to famine, providing a general scope of principles for effective forecasting of famine and humanitarian response to it.

7. Dash, N. The use of geographic information systems in disaster research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(1): 135-146.
Notes: Abstract is quoted from summary to article.
Abstract: "While GIS is not a new technology, it is a technology that is today on the cutting edge in emergency management and in the future can be on the cutting edge in disaster research as well. Its use requires researchers to understand disaster in a spatial context, linking social indicators and geography. Researchers need to look at operationalizing variables differently to allow for spatial analysis. Beyond incorporating GIS into disaster research itself, researchers must begin to look at the use of technology as a whole, concentrating on how it is being implemented and used. The use of GIS is not in and of itself a solution to emergency managers or researchers. Rather it is a tool that, if used correctly, can offer new understandings of age-old problems."

8. Davies, J. L. and Gurr, T. R. Preventive measures: building risk assessment and crisis early warning systems. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers; 1998.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: In this monograph, a comprehensive overview of tools for conflict prevention and mitigation are provided. The chapters include topics on risk assessment, building crisis early warning systems, as well as applications appropriate in conflict response. Of particular interest for applied research and evaluation are Chapter 1: Structural Indicators and Risk Assessment Models and Chapter 2: Dynamic Indicators and Early Warning Models. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on applications of early warning models and systems in the context of country specific cases or those used by certain agencies. The final chapter forms a discussion and analysis that bridges early warning risk assessment, and model development into the scope of early intervention aid response.

9. de Boer, J. Tools for evaluating disasters: preliminary results of some hundreds of disasters. Eur J Emerg Med. 1997 Jun; 4(2): 107-10.
Keywords: Disaster Planning: *methods: standards/ Disasters: *classification: *statistics & numerical data/ Epidemiologic Methods/ Health Resources/ Human/ Injury Severity Score/ *Morbidity/ *Mortality/ Reproducibility of Results/ Support, Non-U.S. Gov't/ Triage
Abstract: Epidemiologic research of disasters is hampered by a lack of uniformity and standardization in describing these events. By applying a classification and scoring system, which recently became available, an analysis could be performed of 416 disasters from the past 40 years. Only 79 references were useful in obtaining reliable figures for a scoring on the Disaster Severity Scale (DSS). The various disaster types show a relationship between the DSS-scoring on the one hand, and the severity factor (S) and the number of dead and wounded (n) on the other. It is concluded that the classification and scoring system used could serve as a tool for evaluating the majority of disasters. A small improvement of this system is recommended.

10. Dynes, R. R. The concept of role in disaster research. In Dynes, Russell R. De Marchi Fruna and Perlanda Carlo. Sociology of disasters. Milano: Franco Angeli Libri; 1987; pp. 71-102.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: Much social research is based on the underlying concept that people represent certain societal roles. Position, behavior, or expectation of behavior can define roles. This paper offers a discussion of structuralist and interactionist views on social roles. Individual role conflict is addressed between family responsibilities and obligations to serve the community. The roles of individuals between these family and community charges are explored. The organizational roles are categorized into four groups:
1) Established emergency response organizations that either adapt to the specific needs of the current disaster or remain in their traditional roles;
2) Expanding organizations that add new members who want to help;
3) Extending organizations that normally do not provide emergency services but extend their normal activities to meet emergency needs; and
4) Emergent organizations that are created to fill new needs which arise as a result of a disaster.
The author advises approaching research in disasters by beginning with observation of individual and group behavior and working backward to determine position.

11. Enarson, E. Through women’s eyes: a gendered research agenda for disaster social science. Disasters. 1998; 22(2): 157-173.
Abstract: Gender is a central organizing principle in social life and hence in disaster-affected communities, yet disaster scholars or practitioners rarely examine gender issues. Building on findings from emerging and industrial nations, three key research directions are identified: How is gendered vulnerability to disaster constructed? How do gender relations shape the practice of disaster planning and response in households and organizations? How are gender relations affected over time by the social experience of disaster? The discussion suggests show analysis of the gendered terrain of disaster both develops disaster theory and fosters more equitable and effective disaster practice.

12. Guha, S. D. and Lechat, M. F. Information systems and needs assessment in natural disasters: an approach for better disaster relief management. Disasters. 1986; 10(3): 232-237.
Keywords: Information; Needs assessment; Relief organization; Logistics systems
Abstract: The paper addresses the issue of information in disasters relief. It begins by establishing the need for planning and systematic organization in disaster action, in order to produce a long-term effect on the vulnerability levels of communities. Information is introduced as a key element in any phase of disaster management. The different informational needs are described by phases; information types and possible sources are briefly described. The organizational network of information collection is presented and the immediate need for research in this field is emphasized.

13. Harrell-Bond, B. E. and Voutira, E. Anthropology and the study of refugees. Anthropology Today. 1992; 8(4): 6-10.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: The integrative nature of the anthropology allows for related issues of refugee situations to be assessed and understood. Among these include the causes and conditions of displacement and geographic refugee movement. Because almost all refugee experiences involve some degree of trauma-and survival, in and of itself, most often requires personal and group adaptation to varying circumstances-an approach for understanding the personal and social adjustment is necessary. Anthropology with its orientation towards interpreting human systems and their phenomena provides a legitimate framework by which to study refugee situations and investigate the experience of individuals and communities affected.

14. Hlady, W. G.; Quenemoen, L. E.; Armenia-Cope, R. R.; Hurt, K. J.; Millay J. ; Noji E. K., and Wurm, G. Use of a modified cluster sampling method to perform rapid needs assessment after Hurricane Andrew. Ann Emerg Med. 1994; 23(4): 719-725.
Abstract: Study objective: To rapidly obtain population-based estimates of needs in the early aftermath of Hurricane Andrew in South Florida.
Methods: We used a modified cluster-sampling method (the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) method) for three surveys. We selected a systematic sample of 30 quarter-mile square clusters for each survey and, beginning from a random start, interviewed members of seven consecutive occupied households in each cluster. Two surveys were of the most affected area (1990 population, 32,672) at three and ten days after the hurricane struck; one survey was of a less affected area (1990 population, 15,576) seven days after the hurricane struck.
Measurements and main results: Results were available within 24 hours of beginning each survey. Initial findings emphasized the need for restoring utilities and sanitation and helped to focus medical relief on primary care and preventive services. The second survey of the most affected area showed improvement in the availability of food, water, electricity, and sanitation (P<=. 05). There was no evidence of disease outbreaks.
Conclusion: For the first time, the EPI method provided population-based information to guide and evaluate relief operations after a sudden-impact natural disaster. An improvement over previous approaches, the EPI method warrants further evaluation as a needs assessment tool in acute disasters.

15. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Reference Group on Small Arms. Thematic guidance for the identification of agency data on the humanitarian implications of small arms and light weapons. 1999 Apr 22. (On-line). Available: http://www.reliefweb.int/ocha_olpub
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: The primary means of violence in conflict situations in developing countries is the use of light arms. Light arms in these situations also lead to very high civilian mortality. For this reason, there is a need for increased measures to identify small arms proliferation in developing countries. Humanitarian agencies increase the extent of focus brought to this issue and develop methods for measuring and reporting on the magnitude of the proliferation and transference of small arms and light weapons in the geographic area. Methodologic guidelines for data collection, and the development of case studies are provided. Recommended information for comprehension of contextual themes relevant to area-specific assessment of small arms proliferation is also addressed in an abridged outline format.

16. Kreps, G. A. Sociological inquiry and disaster research. Ann Rev Sociol. 1984; 10:309-330.
Abstract: This article reviews and critiques recent studies of hazards and disasters from a general sociological perspective. Historical attempts to define and interpret disasters in sociological terms are important, and such efforts inevitably raise basic questions about the social order. C.E. Fritz’s earlier definition of disaster is revised to reflect the growing awareness in the field that patterns within the social order are both causes and consequences of environmental vulnerability. This revised definition points to four core dimensions of disaster: events, impacts, social units, and response. Using the latter two for illustrative purposes, recent research on social networks and organizational forms of association related to disasters is highlighted. This section is followed by a review of the kinds of questions that sociologists have been asking about the social order, as evidenced by several recent large-scale studies. While contemporary work has greater substantive breadth and more methodological rigor than earlier studies, there are continuities over time as well. The paper closes by presenting some comments about interdisciplinary and cross-cultural research on disasters.

17. Lagerkvist, B. Rehabilitation research under fire. Scand J Soc Med. 1998 Jun; 26(2): 85-6.
Keywords: Disabled Persons: *rehabilitation/ Forecasting/ Health Priorities: trends/ Health Services Needs and Demand: *trends/ Health Services Research: *trends/ Human/ *War/ World Health Organization/ Yugoslavia
Abstract: Catastrophes in the health area are frequent. A template for conduct and reporting of research in disaster responses has recently been published. The WHO Rehabilitation of War Victims Project basically followed these principles in former Yugoslavia to estimate defined needs, prioritize and evaluate methods used. Around 30% of war victims reported to be wounded were found to be in need of physical rehabilitation. Priority was given to the 5% with severe disabilities caused by amputations, spinal cord injuries and traumatic brain injuries. Most of the infrastructure was destroyed and WHO supported a community based rehabilitation approach (CBR). Evaluating this type of service delivery became extremely difficult under present circumstances. Waves of refugees rolled both within the republics and over the borders demonstrating both the needs and problems listed in the template referred to. The CBR service delivery worked out satisfactorily with high patient satisfaction. Limited medical training greatly improved the situation for the personnel. Even in a disaster situation research is needed for proper decision-making and to gain experiences for future aid.

18. Malilay, J.; Flanders, W. D., and Brogan, D. A modified cluster-sampling method for post-disaster rapid assessment of needs. Bull World Health Organ. 1996; 74(4): 399-405.
Keywords: Cluster Analysis/ *Health Services Needs and Demand/ Human/ *Natural Disasters/ Population Surveillance: *methods/ Support, Non-U.S. Gov't/ Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.
Abstract: The cluster-sampling method can be used to conduct rapid assessment of health and other needs in communities affected by natural disasters. It is modeled on WHO's Expanded Programme on Immunization method of estimating immunization coverage, but has been modified to provide (1) estimates of the population remaining in an area, and (2) estimates of the number of people in the post-disaster area with specific needs. This approach differs from that used previously in other disasters where rapid needs assessments only estimated the proportion of the population with specific needs. We propose a modified n x k survey design to estimate the remaining population, severity of damage, the proportion and number of people with specific needs, the number of damaged or destroyed and remaining housing units, and the changes in these estimates over a period of time as part of the survey.

19. Margoluis, R. A.; Franklin, R. R.; Bertrand, W. F., and Sellers, T. A. Rapid post-disaster community needs assessment: a case study of Guatemala after the civil strife of 1979-1983. Disasters. 1989; 13(4): 287-299.
Abstract: Disaster assessment and assistance activities are often hampered by organization problems, which diminish the effect of these efforts on the people they are intended to help. Inefficient targeting of relief causes reduced coverage of needy populations and inflated costs. In order to ensure that the most needy populations receive appropriate types and amounts of assistance, collection of assessment data must be the lowest possible administrative unit. In addition, it is essential that disaster assessment be a dynamic process in which follow-up activities monitor possible changes in vulnerability and need in the targeted populations.
This paper presents a method for post-disaster rapid needs assessment at the community level. Indigenous numerators are used to collect data with which communities are served and ranked according to need. Qualitative and quantitative methods are incorporated to provide rapidly a centralized database with which relief organizations can accurately target specific communities for assistance.

20. Morrow, B. H. Identifying and mapping community vulnerability. Disasters. 1999 Mar; 23(1): 1-18.
Keywords: Aged/ Child/ *Demography/ Disaster Planning: *methods/ Female/ Human/ Information Systems/ Risk Assessment: *methods/ Socioeconomic Factors/ United States
Abstract: Disaster vulnerability is socially constructed, i.e., it arises out of the social and economic circumstances of everyday living. Most often discussed from the perspective of developing nations, this article extends the argument using American demographic trends. Examples from recent disasters, Hurricane Andrew in particular, illustrate how certain categories of people, such as the poor, the elderly, women- headed households and recent residents, are at greater risk throughout the disaster response process. Knowledge of where these groups are concentrated within communities and the general nature of their circumstances is an important step towards effective emergency management. Emergency planners, policy-makers and responding organizations are encouraged to identify and locate high-risk sectors on Community Vulnerability Maps, integrating this information into GIS systems where feasible. Effective disaster management calls for aggressively involving these neighborhoods and groups at all levels of planning and response, as well as mitigation efforts that address the root causes of vulnerability.

21. Neefjes, K. Participatory review in chronic instability: the experience of the Ikafe refugee settlement programme, Uganda. Relief and rehabilitation network paper 29. London: Overseas Development Institute; 1999. Note: Abstract available on the Overseas Development Institute web site: http//www.oneworld.org/odi/rrn/pubs/net-ab29.html. Abstract: This paper presents the participatory review of the Ikafe settlement program in Northwest Uganda. Set up in 1994, the Ikafe project allocated land to Sudanese refugees so that they could become self-sufficient in food supply, attempt to reach self-management and representation, as well as some measure of integration with the host population. Attempts were undertaken to reach a deeper understanding of the conflicting interests, and to formulate ways forward. The review set out to use methodologies previously employed in comparatively stable situations, but was interrupted by violence. In spite of this, it continued to engage with all stakeholders, adapted to changing context, and effectively developed ideas for participatory review in situations of instability by ‘doing.’ The conclusions were unfortunately overtaken by further violence and evacuation of staff from project site. Most refugees also moved away and the bigger settlement of the project is now closed. However, the methodology of the review has many positive lessons in terms of encouraging cooperation, increased transparency of intervening agencies and, above all, lessons for improving the plight of refugees and poor host populations.

24. Peacock, W. G. Cross-national and comparative disaster research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(1): 117-133.
Abstract: Distinguishing characteristics and issues of comparative and cross-cultural research, problems and opportunities, and an assessment of future prospects are offered and related to disaster research. No single approach is advocated; rather, various approaches-case study to cross-national, contemporary to historical, and qualitative to quantitative-are recommended. Methodological issues including model specification, problems of aggregation, intra- versus inter-national variation, and secondary versus primary data collection are addressed. Particular attention is devoted to issues of equivalence related to conceptualization, data comparability, operationalization and measurement, conversion, standardization, and units of observation. The need for systematic efforts to develop research tools that can be utilized to measure critical concepts such as recovery, restoration, risk, and mitigation is identified. Finally, discipline-based, yet disaster relevant, cross-national and comparative research agendas consistent with a broader ecological perspective targeting disasters, development, and the social production of vulnerability are advocated.

25. Phillips, B. Qualitative methods and disaster research. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(1): 179-195.
Abstract: This paper discusses the existing and potential linkages between qualitative research and disaster research. It begins by considering recent trends in qualitative research relevant to disaster studies and lists misconceptions which readers should peruse before passing judgment on qualitative research. The recent trends will likely influence qualitative disaster research, especially in the areas of data analysis and writing. The paper also identifies strong linkages between qualitative and disaster research, and the unusual opportunities qualitative researchers have enjoyed within disaster research. Beyond these linkages, this essay also identifies both problems and the potential of qualitative disaster research, including expanding data collection methods, nurturing the next generation of qualitative disaster researchers, and latching onto rapidly developing computing technologies for qualitative research. The author concludes with a "wish list" for future qualitative disaster research.

26. Piotrowski, C. Use of the semantic differential technique in research on disaster: a methodological note. Psychol Rep. 1985 Apr; 56(2):527-30.
Keywords: Adaptation, Psychological/ Child/ Child Reactive Disorders: *psychology/ *Disasters/ Florida/ Human/ *Natural Disasters/ *Semantic Differential
Notes: Abstract is quoted from summary of article.
Abstract: "This paper suggests the utility of the semantic differential technique as one method of measurement in investigations of disasters. The technique is versatile and efficient and can be used to assess psychological factors in behavior and perceptions of groups who experience disasters. A previous study in which this measurement was used to examine the aftereffects of a natural disaster is presented."

27. Schmeidl, S. and Jenkins, J. C. The early warning of humanitarian disasters: problems in building an early warning system. International Migration Review. 1998; 32(2): 471-486. Abstract: Encourages social scientists to adapt a more prospective approach to the design of early warning models for humanitarian disasters. These and conventional social science models for disaster are compared, and differences between natural and humanitarian (e.g.. Civil war, refugee migration) disaster early warning models are discussed. Arguing that the primary objective of humanitarian models is prevention, it is contended that social scientists must urge political actors and ordinary people to become involved in the prevention of humanitarian disasters. Despite the persistence of problems with conventional social science models, it is maintained that novel data gathering techniques and better understanding of the factors that cause humanitarian disaster will facilitate the creation of more effective early warning models. Problems concerning the contextual and temporal sensitivity of such models are addressed and obstacles to establishing them, resulting from the limited availability of humanitarian disaster data, are identified. Political implications of creating better humanitarian early warning models, e.g. improved ability to identify parties responsible for human rights violations, are considered.

28. Silkin, T. and Hendrie, B. Research in the war zones of Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Disasters. 1997 Jun; 21(2): 166-76.
Keywords: Disaster Planning: *organization & administration/ Ethiopia/ Food Supply/ Health Services Needs and Demand/ Health Services Research: *organization & administration/ Human/ Politics/ Prejudice/ Relief Work: *organization & administration/ *War/ Yugoslavia
Abstract: The paper engages in the discussion of conducting research in war zones, initiated in Disasters by Barakat and Ellis. It looks specifically at possibilities for research in the war zones of Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia during the 1980s, and notes the ways in which this context differs from wars in the former Yugoslavia to which Barakat and Ellis mainly refer. The authors suggest that the unique context of every internal war, and the institutional actors that converge around this context, create both the potential and the demand for particular kinds of information, especially when humanitarian programmes involving international donors are under way. De-contexualising research in war zones from the specific context in which it occurs, in order to derive general guidelines, can thus be problematic.

29. Stallings, R. A. Methods of disaster research: unique or not? International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. 1997; 15(1): 7-19.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: As an introductory overview, this article provides a discussion on approaches to disaster research and insight into the debate regarding if disaster research methods are different from those used generally in social science research. The article advocates that the circumstances of disaster situations should be emphasized as unique and therefore require methods of research specialized methodologies appropriate to the stage of the disaster process. To this point, it presents a general outline of methods of research that have been uniquely applied to disaster situations with more particular details of methods described further in each individual article of the issue.

30. Tailhades, M. and Toole, M. J. Disasters: what are the needs? How can they be assessed? Trop Doct. 1991; 21 Suppl 1:18-23.
Keywords: Disaster Planning: *organization & administration/ Health Services Needs and Demand/ Health Status Indicators/ Relief Work/ Risk Factors
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: Different circumstances will affect the prioritization of needs for a community. The focus of this article is to present methodological possibilities for assessing and addressing these needs locally during various phases of a disaster. These considerations revolve around issues such as the type of disaster, the speed of its onset, the extent to which the community was prepared for the disaster, and the resource capacity of the community to respond to the disaster. Five different phases (pre-disaster, alert, impact, post-impact, and reconstruction and rehabilitation) of a disaster situation are identified and considerations necessary for implementing an assessment appropriate to each phase are specified.

31. Vargas, C. Ethical challenges in refugee research: troublesome questions, difficult answers. Refuge. 1998; 17(3): 35-46.
Abstract: This paper articulates some of the more troublesome questions and ethical challenges that researchers conducting interviews with refugees and refugee service-providers face. The author suggests three ethical principles that must be considered when doing qualitative research: a) trust, confidentiality, honesty, responsibility, b) an active and positive approach to cultural differences, including gender issues, and c) respect for the emotional experiences of victims. By grounding the research process within this ethical practice, a delicate balance between the goals of research and the interests of the respondent can be maintained.

32. Ward, P. and Rimmer, M. Targeting the poor in northern Iraq: the role of formal and informal research methods in relief operations. Relief and rehabilitation network paper 8. London: Overseas Development Institute; 1995.
Notes: Abstract written by Tulane University.
Abstract: This paper refutes criticism that formal studies (household questionnaire surveys using statistically representative sampling techniques), as opposed to informal studies, are too costly, inflexible, and time-consuming to be justified in many situations. The authors use a case study from northern Iraq to demonstrate how a combination of formal and informal methods can be used to minimize the weaknesses of formal studies and maximize the strengths of both methods. The paper briefly summarizes the situation in northern Iraq that precipitated this study. Data collected, sampling, analysis, results, and policy implications are all discussed. A copy of the complete questionnaire used is included in the appendices.