Parastate: The mutant offspring of an expiring failed state boasting certain essential attributes of a normal state but grotesquely lacking in others. (Glenny1996, cited by Lemarchand 1998: http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v1/3/2.htm)
Partial democracy: Governments that have some democratic characteristics, such as elections, but also have some autocratic characteristics, such as a chief executive with almost no constraints on his/her power, sharp limits on political competition, a state-restrained press, or a cowed or dependent judiciary. Most are countries that have recently transitioned toward democracy but have not yet fully replaced autocratic practices and institutions. (Esty et al 1998: 9)
Participatory democracy: A system of government in which individuals and interest groups are involved directly in decision making. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)
Patron-client relationship: Relationship in which a patron provides services, rewards, or protection to a number of clients in return for their personal allegiance. The patron controls the resources; the clients are thus in a relationship of dependence. (Sørensen 1993: 159)
PDD 25-reforming multilateral peace operations: Presidential Decision Directive stating the primary mission of the US military to be prepared to fight and win two simultaneous regional conflicts. In this context, peacekeeping can be one useful tool to help prevent and resolve such conflicts before they pose direct threats to our national security. Peacekeeping can also serve US interests by promoting democracy, regional security, and economic growth. The PDD addresses six major issues of reform and improvement: making disciplined and coherent choices about which peace operations to support; reducing US cost for UN peace operations, both the percentage our nation pays for each operation and the cost of the operations themselves; defining clearly our policy regarding the command and control of American military forces in UN peace operations; reforming and improving the UN's capability to manage peace operations; improving the way the US government manages and funds peace operations; creating better forms of cooperation between the Executive Branch, the Congress and the American public on peace operations. (US Government 1994: www.whitehouse.gov/WH/EOP/NSC/html/documents/NSCdoc1.html)
PDD 56 - Managing complex contingency operations (CCO): The Presidential Decision Directive that defines complex contingency operations as peace operations such as the peace accord implementation operation conducted by NATO in Bosnia (1995-present) and the humanitarian intervention in Northern Iraq called Operation Provide Comfort (1991). Foreign humanitarian assistance such as Operation Support Hope in Central Africa (1994) and Operation Sea Angel in Bangladesh (1991) are also considered CCOs. Unless otherwise directed, this PDD does not apply to domestic disaster relief or to relatively routine or small-scale operations, nor to military operations conducted in defense of US citizens, territory, or property, including counter-terrorism and hostage rescue operations and international armed conflict.
To best respond to these types of CCOs, the PDD has specified the need of the US Government to better institutionalize Military and Civilian agency linkages so that they operate in a synchronized manner through effective inter-agency management and the use of special mechanisms to coordinate agency efforts. The PDD requires that a Political-Military implementation plan or (Pol-Mil plan) be developed as an integrated planning tool for coordinating US government actions in a CCO. The Pol-Mil includes a comprehensive situation report, mission statement, agency objective, and desired end state. (US government, 1997: http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/EOP/NSC/html/documents/NSCDoc2.html)
A) Political condition other than organized armed conflict (war), often distinguished from a situation of non-war (neither war nor peace). (Evans & Newnham, 1992; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
B) Positive definitions based on four concepts: peace as harmony (stressing absence of conflict); peace as order (stressing stability and 'peace through strength'); peace as justice (stressing absence of domination and poverty); and peace as conflict management (stressing peace as process for obtaining interests and needs rather than as an end in itself). (Banks, 1987, cited by Burgess & Burgess, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
A) The employment of measures to consolidate peaceful relations and create an environment that deters the emergence or escalation of tensions which may lead to conflict. (International Alert 1995; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
B) The effort to promote human security in societies marked by conflict. The overarching goal of peace building is to strengthen the capacity of societies to manage conflict without violence, as a means to achieve sustainable human security. (CPCC, undated: http://www.cpcc.ottawa.on.ca/chart-e.htm)
Peace constituency: Peoples from different sectors of civil society whose prevailing interest is the development of sustainable peace and whose activities are based on long-term commitment. (International Alert, cited by Van Tongeren 1998: 22)
A) The application of military force or threat of its use, normally pursuant to international authorization, to compel compliance with generally accepted resolutions or sanctions to maintain or restore peace and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement. The primary purpose of peace enforcement is the restoration of peace under conditions broadly defined by the international community (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)
B) The use or threat of armed force as provided for in Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter aimed at restoring peace by military means such as in Korea (1950-1953) or Iraq (1991). It can take place without the agreement and support of one or all of the warring parties. It can refer to both an inter-state or an intrastate conflict, to [serve] the mitigation of a humanitarian emergency or in situations where the organs of state have ceased to function. Peace enforcement actions include carrying out international sanctions against the opposing sides, or against the side that represents the driving force in the armed conflict; isolating the conflict and preventing arms deliveries to the area, as well as preventing its penetration by armed formations; delivering air or missile strikes on positions of the side that refuses to halt its military actions; and rapid deployment of peace forces to the combat zones in numbers sufficient to carry out the assigned missions, including the localizing of the conflict and the disarming or eradicating of any armed formations that refuse to cease fighting. (Demurenko & Nikitin, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Peace making: A process of diplomacy, mediation, negotiation, or other forms of achieving peaceful settlements that arrange ends to disputes. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)
Peace operations: The umbrella term which encompasses three types of activities: activities with predominately diplomatic orientation, (preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peace building); and two complementary, predominately military activities, namely peacekeeping and peace enforcement. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)
Peaceful coexistence: A phrase that was frequently used during the Cold War, to refer to the idea that even though the Soviet Union and the US had differing social systems and were in an adversarial relationship, they could still exist together without resorting to war. The phrase describes any situation in which rivals need to work out a "live and let live" arrangement. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)
Peacekeeping (PK): Neutral military or para-military operations undertaken with the consent of all major belligerents, designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of existing truces and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement. (UNDHA 1995: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)
Peacekeeping forces: Civilian and military personnel designated by the national governments of the countries participating in the peace operation. These personnel are placed at the disposal of the international organization under whose mandate the given operation is being conducted. Generally, peacekeeping forces are made up of national contingents under international command. Each national contingent is assigned either a zone of responsibility or specific functional duties. (Demurenko & Nikitin; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Peacekeeping mandate: The UN's interpretation of the use of force in self-defense is ambiguous. PK has traditionally been described as a non-coercive instrument, but since 1973, the guidelines approved by the Security Council for each PK force have stipulated that self-defense is deemed to include resistance to attempts by forceful means to prevent the PK force from discharging its duties. (British Army, 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Peacekeeping operations: A common term used for various types of activities, such as resolve conflict; prevent conflict escalation; halt or prevent military actions; to uphold law and order in a conflict zone; conduct humanitarian actions; restore social and political institutions whose functioning has been disrupted by the conflict; and restore basic conditions for daily living. The distinctive feature of peacekeeping operations is that they are conducted under a mandate from the United Nations or regional organizations whose functions include peace support and international security. (British Army 1997; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Personal rule: A system of government based on personal loyalty toward the leading figure of the regime, the strong man. The important positions of the state are filled with followers of the strong man. Their allegiance is reinforced by their sharing of the spoils of office. (Sørensen 1993: 159)
Phantom/mirage state: A state exhibiting a semblance of authority in certain limited areas, but non-existent in all others. (Gros 1992, cited by CIFP 1998: http://www.carleton.ca/~dcarment/cifp/)
Pivotal factors: Single or (most likely) configurations of factors that show up in (almost) all stages of the life-cycle of the conflict. As such, they can be seen as key factors leading to escalation or de-escalation. They lie at the root of the conflict and as such are most important in policy making, as they need to be addressed in order to resolve the conflict. (Arias Foundation 1998: 7)
Plebiscite: A vote of all the people in a territory or country on an important issue, usually a matter of national sovereignty. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)
Pluralism: A strategy for accommodating ethnic minorities that recognizes their individual and collective right to preserve their language, values, and lifeways in coexistence with those of the dominant group. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 192)
Plural society: A society consisting of a number of ethnic groups, each with a distinct collective identity and interests, who are not ranked or stratified in relationship to one another. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 192)
Polarization: Showing two contrary directions and tendencies. In political speech, the term has come to refer to the process by which two sides in a dispute or political issue move steadily further apart so that no rational solution or dialogue seems possible. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)
Political and economic discrimination: The systematic and selective limitation of individual access to political positions or economic opportunities based on ascribed characteristics, such as political affiliation, income, gender, ethnicity, religion, caste etc. (Gurr & Haxton, 1996: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/minrept1.htm)
Political culture: The system of values and beliefs defining the context and meaning of political action. (Huntington cited by Sørensen 1993: 159)
Political enfranchisement: Provides individuals or groups a stake in the political system via a perceived value in the preservation of that system because it works to the benefit of its participants. Some of the mechanisms that can inculcate enfranchisement include legal mechanisms for the preservation of individual, minority, indigenous, and cultural rights; a political framework for the protection of heritage and expression; representational governments that can include specific provisions for proportionality; and judicial and structural checks on majority power. (von Lipsey, ed. 1997: 21-22)
Political exclusion: The exclusion of an individual or group from participation in political processes. This exclusion may stem from law, custom, intimidation or discrimination.
Political legitimacy: The perception of the citizenry that the nation’s political institutions and leaders are generally acting in accordance with their interests and needs.
Political rights: The freedom of individuals to participate freely in the political process. In a free society this means the right of all adults to vote and compete for public office, and for elected representatives to have a decisive vote on public policies. (Freedom House 1992: 65)
Politically motivated aid: Aid given primarily to benefit the donor. (Tisch and Wallace 1994: 163)
Politicization: The giving of a political character to an issue. For example, if a debate over some previously non-political issue becomes divided along party political lines, the division is characterized as a politicization of the debate. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)
Power mediation: A process in which an intermediary provides the functions of pure mediation and adds the use of leverage in the form of promised rewards or threatened punishment to move the parties toward a settlement. (Fisher & Keashly 1990, 1991; cited by Fisher 1997: 164)
Power-sharing: A strategy for accommodating ethnic minorities based on the assumption that ethnic identities and organizations are the basic elements of society. Political power is exercised jointly by these groups, each of which is represented in government and each of which has veto power over policies that adversely affect group members. (Gurr and Harff 1994: 192)
Preventive development: Refers to the conscious use of relief and sustainable development resources to strengthen conflict-prone societies’ capacities to resolve disputes nonviolently. Sustainable development initiatives in the areas of humanitarian assistance, economic growth, democracy and environment are designed in such a framework to address the root causes of conflict in violent-prone environments. Special care is also given to ensure that sustainable development initiatives are designed and implemented to avoid exacerbating or creating violent-prone disputes. (USAID: personal communiqué)
A) Action taken in vulnerable places and times to avoid the threat or use of armed force and related forms of coercion by states or groups to settle political disputes that can arise from the destabilizing effects of economic, social, political, and international change.(Lund 1996: 37)
B) Measures taken to prevent the breakdown of peaceful conditions. It aims to prevent existing tensions from escalating into violence and to contain the spread of conflict when it occurs. (International Alert 1995; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs.thes.htm)
Preventive strategies: Effective preventive strategies rest on three principles: early reaction to signs of trouble requiring early detection and skilled analysis of developing trends; a comprehensive, balanced approach to alleviate pressures that trigger violent conflict and an effective response requiring a coordinated range of political, economic, social, and military measures; and an extended effort to resolve the underlying root causes of violence. Two sub-categories can be identified: operational prevention measures applicable in the face of immediate crisis; and structural prevention measures to ensure that crises do not arise in the first place or, if they do, that they do not recur. (Carnegie Commission; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Propaganda: Dissemination of ideas and information for the purpose of inducing or intensifying specific attitudes and actions. The word suggests connotations of appeal to passion and prejudice through false or misleading distortion of fact. (Microsoft Corporation 1997-1999: http://encarta.msn.com/)
Proportional representation: Electoral system designed to produce legislative bodies in which the number of seats held by any group or party is proportional to the number of votes cast for members of that group. There are several variations of this system. One purpose has been to provide minority groups with a degree of representation that may have been denied to them under a “first-past-the-post” system.
Protracted social conflict: Ongoing and apparently irresolvable conflicts mostly in developing countries centered on religious, cultural, or ethnic communal identity which in turn is dependent upon the satisfaction of basic needs such as security, communal recognition and distributive justice. (Azar, 1986, 1990, cited by International Alert, 1996; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Pure mediation: A process through which a skilled intermediary attempts to facilitate a negotiated settlement on a set of specific substantive issues through the use of reasoning, persuasion, control of information and suggestion. (Fisher & Keashly 1990, 1991; cited by Fisher 1997: 164)
Pyrrhic victory: A victory in which the victor pays too high a price to make it worthwhile. The phrase comes from the victory of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, over the Romans at Asculum in 279 B.C., in which he lost a large part of his army. (Fast Times 1999: http://www.fast-times.com/political.html)